STructures of ARgument

Today's Scripture

• Proverbs 1:7 "The fear of the Lord is the beginning of knowledge; fools despise wisdom and instruction"

Review Questions-answer in 1-2 sentences

• What is the rhetorical context? How would describe its meaning?
• What are the two ways to read an argument? Explain the difference between the two.
• Describe Dialectic Thinking. What does it do for an argument?
• What is the difference between thesis, antithesis, and synthesis?

As discussed in Ch. 1...

• professional or academic argument is not a disagreement that involves anger or hostility
• seeks to convince or show how his or her belief is the correct viewpoint to create a persuasive academic argument
• to create a persuasive academic argument
• must go through the process of clarifying that view and supporting it with evidence

Three different frameworks for argument will be covered in this chapter:

Aristotelian (Classical), Rogerian, and Toulminian

Aristotelian or Classical Framework

• most common and is often regarded as traditional academic writing
• is founded in what is true and what is false
• determining the right answer and showing how it is right and how other answers are not
• rhetoric analyzes and evaluates argument using ethos, pathos, and logos

Introduction

• introduces the topic in an interesting way to catch and keep the reader’s attention
• make readers feel comfortable and open to listening before introducing them to the argument
• purpose are drawing the reader’s attention to an event, a quotation, a hypothetical question

State the Case

• writer needs to ensure the issue is clarified
• helpful background information for understanding the issues belongs here

Proposition

• writer states the thesis, which is the main claim of the essay
• often the last sentence in the introduction
• uses a forecasting or foreshadowing technique to include the subtopics or supportive points that will be covered
• reader will recognize each of the supporting points as he or she progresses
• use ethos, pathos, & logos persuasion

Also, includes..,

• Evidence (examples) give strong support, along with proper in-text citations

If a writer’s audience is...

...drawn to logic and reason, more emphasis might be placed on logos.

...drawn to an authoritative figure, the writer might spend more time developing his or her
credibility, or ethos.

...more likely to be swayed by appealing to their values or beliefs, then pathos should be the focus of the writing.

If the writer is unsure of the audience’s preferences, then a balance should be struck between all three in the way he or she writes.

Concession and Refutation

• arguments always have more than one side
• should recognize opposing points of view (not always necessary)
• recognize and explain the opposition while also being careful not to support the opposition more than the writer’s own view

Untitled Slide

• analyzes the argument to include it and then refuting it for the faulty reasoning
• must concede the point of opposing argument
• must have more points and stronger value for his/her argument so the essay is not weakened

The Rogerian Framework

• seeks to solve a problem through negotiation of differences in perspectives
• usually begins by exploring common ground and focuses on building bridges between the writer and the audience
• focus is placed upon shared values, beliefs, and opinions rather than on differences

The Rogerian Framework

• emphasis on a winner-winner process and solution in which negotiation and mutual respect are imperative
• avoids language that might indicate an attack or challenge for other viewpoints
• shows empathy toward the opposing viewpoint and allows for mutual understanding and respect

Introduction

• explore common ground with the audience
• careful to express the opposition’s view of the matter in a fair and unbiased manner

Example,
In an argument in favor of immigration reform, the writer might begin by stating his or her respect for Americans who want to work hard and earn money to support their families, especially those who are able-bodied and have been previously employed.

BODY Paragraphs

• indirectly expresses his or her own view as objectively as possible, avoiding challenging, attacking, or insulting language
• provide explanation of the validity of their position vs. showing superiority

Example
In an argument in favor of immigration reform, the writer might remark on the millions of workers already living in the United States in the shadows and how they struggle to survive on the low wages legitimate businesses are paying them...might point out how immigration reform can help secure the borders as well as families but target felons and undocumented individuals, enabling law enforcement to find the felons and hold the undocumented accountable for passing a criminal background check, while also paying the correct level of taxes.

Conclusion

• re-express his or her thesis in the conclusion but not in exactly the same words
• clearly concedes in some way to the opposition’s viewpoint ...a reiteration of some point or points made previously
• to persuade and convince the reader of his or her viewpoint, even if not fully

The Toulmin Framework

• show both strengths and weaknesses of the writer’s claim, which is the way Toulmin intended it to be—realistic with no pretense
• point is not to win the argument or to conquer opposing viewpoints, but instead, it is to show the most likely or most true possibility

Toulmin broke with the standard thinkers of his day in the 1950s in Britain and claimed that philosophers needed to treat reasoning on a practical, case-by-case basis that was much closer to Aristotelian thought than to the way his contemporaries regarded reasoning, logic, and argument (O’Grady, 2010).

-Claim: statement being argued (the writer’s thesis statement);

-Grounds: facts or evidence used to support the argument;

-Warrants: general, hypothetical, and often implicit, logical statements that serve as bridges between the claim and the data;

-Qualifiers: statements or adverbial expressions (e.g., probably, most likely, usually, most often) that limit the strength of the argument or statements that propose the conditions under which the argument is true;

-Rebuttals: counterarguments or statements indicating circumstances when the general argument does not hold true; and

-Backing: statements that serve to support the warrants; includes arguments that do not necessarily support the main point being argued, but support that the warrants are true (Ramage, Callaway, Clary- Lemon, & Waggoner, 2009).

enthymemes

• does not use an absolute claim
• uses qualifiers and rebuttals versus an absolute claim
• incomplete logical structures

Claim: The easing of immigration restrictions should be supported because it will allow the economy in the United States to flourish. This thesis statement relies on a shared cultural knowledge or belief to make sense.

Grounds: This could include possible statistical data showing areas of the country and times in history in which less strict laws on immigration have led to upswings of the U.S. economy; quotations, paraphrases, or summaries from experts who hold this same outlook on immigration; and/or examples or anecdotes of individual cases of less restrictive laws on immigration and success.

Warrant: Making the laws on immigration less strict is a positive act.

Qualifiers: If the writer, in providing rebuttal to challenges, finds a need to limit the claim, then he or she will provide qualifiers describing the probability of the claim. Words and phrases such as usually, probably, most likely, or highly possible would be added to the area challenged. For example, if the main claim is challenged, then the change might be as follows: Immigration reform should be supported because it usually will allow the economy in the United States to flourish.

-Aristotelian (or Classical) framework
regarded as the easiest and oldest method of writing...writers must begin the writing in a way to interest the reader, provide background or context for the chosen readers, clearly state claims and evidence, consider and address opposing viewpoints, and conclude the writing

-Rogerian framework
involves empathetic listening and bridging the gap between perspectives and finding common ground

-Toulmin framework
focuses more on the practical rather than theoretical or philosophical concerns...works very well with everyday problem-solving, arriving at the best possible solution

In your own words....

• Describe what framework you have the most experience with from previous writing experiences.
• What framework are you most interested in using in your writing? and Why?
• In your opinion, what argument framework do you think is the most effective? and why do you think so?

Definition Essay

• List two social issues that you are most interested in when it comes to technology