Patterns of perpetration and victimisation change according to ETHNICITY, GENDER, CLASS and AGE.
The justice system appears to be biased against non-white, male, working-class, young men.

Statistics appear to show that ethnic minorities are more likely to be stopped, searched, arrested and in prison.

BUT

Also more at risk of being victims of crime and also more worried about crime generally.

More at risk of mugging; vehicle theft; racially motivated crime.

updated information here:
http://www.prisonreformtrust.org.uk/projectsresearch/race

Very detailed information here:
http://researchbriefings.files.parliament.uk/documents/SN04334/SN04334.pdf

Very interesting article detailing possible reasons for rise in Muslim population within prison:
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-31794599

Hall & Gilroy - legal system biased against young Afro-Caribbean men
Chambliss - negative labelling of black men (RDU study, 1994)
Philips & Bowling (2002) - UK criminal justice system = racist, 5-8x more black men stopped and searched than white, higher arrest and imprisonment rates, over policed inner city, racially abusive language
Macpherson Inquiry - after Stephen Lawrence, concluded 'institutional racism'

BUT

Waddington (2004) - not racist, simply more minority ethnic men out at night in high crime areas, therefore not racism
Lea & Young - young black men ARE more criminal in street crime, due to relative deprivation, subcultures & marginalization.
Hall & Gilroy (contradicting themselves) structural factors - poverty, unemployment & poor housing cause young black men to turn to crime, so not just a moral panic.

Other factors:
Lack of educational success
Family structure
Mass media
Declining religious influence/increased integration

Afro-Caribbean boys have lowest attainment of any ethnic group
Negative impact on confidence; ability to find a 'good' job; access to higher education.
Street crime may be seen as only way to gain status and money.

Link to Merton & Subcultural theorists.

60% young black children raised in female headed single parent families.
20% young white children raised in single parent families.
Lack positive male role models - may lead to increased participation in street crime.

HOWEVER
Single parent often = poorer no matter the ethnicity of the family - this may be the more relevant factor.

Other minority ethnic groups e.g. Asian may be influenced by increased integration and therefore decreased influence of family/religion in limiting behaviour.

*controversial argument* (New Right, social commentators, conservative politicians)
Influence of mass media, particularly black rap artists - emphasise violence, sexism, drugs, sex = negative role models
CRITICISMS:
Also a great deal of positive lyrics and attitudes shown, cannot see mass media as only influence on behaviour.

*controversial argument* (New Right, social commentators, conservative politicians)
Influence of mass media, particularly black rap artists - emphasise violence, sexism, drugs, sex = negative role models
CRITICISMS:
Also a great deal of positive lyrics and attitudes shown, cannot see mass media as only influence on behaviour.

Many writers focus largely on crime and male gender as being most relevant for offending, women are seen more often as victims.
Women are mostly 'invisible' when researching.

Arguments to explain this:
- women are less criminal than men
- police & courts treat women more favourably, CHIVALRY argument
- women use femininity and cultural capital to avoid arrest
- women are seen as led astray by male accomplice
HOWEVER
- in rape cases women can be seen as partly responsible for being attacked - drinking, dressing 'provocatively'

Merton/Strain Theory- Leonard (1982) argues women are more about relationships than money, so don't need to steal, women have 'low aspirations'

Subcultural/Environmental Theories - women 'don't join gangs'; environmental approaches focus on class, women not considered. Shaw & McKay assume crime levels close to city centre are all male.

Labelling Theory - all focused on make offending and class, may explain why police/courts treat men and women differently.

Marxist Theories - again focus on class, not gender, BUT, if working class men commit crime due to capitalism why don't women?

Adler - female crime rate increasing due to women's liberation. Women no longer afraid to be deviant. No longer limited by 'housewife' role.

Evaluation: biggest increase amongst working class who are least affected by 'liberation'

Carlen - rational choice theory, women commit crime when 'class/gender deal' breaks down.

Evaluation: small sample, 39 mainly working class women. Other women experience the breakdown of these 'deals' yet do not turn to crime.

Differential association - boys and girls socialised differently, girls encouraged to be nurturing, passive: boys encouraged to be tough, aggressive.

Opportunities - women have responsibilities e.g. child care & housework which limits opportunity. In the last less likely to work =reduced opportunity for white collar crime.

Risk-taking - women take fewer risks BUT argument seen as outdated and sexist.

Knowledge - women don't have the technical skills BUT outdated and sexist argument. Consider female roles in a wide range of crime dramas - women increasingly seen as equally competent as men in a range of criminal and crime fighting activities.

Young are more criminal than old, working class more criminal than other classes.

Functionalists: young working class = more need to innovate, possibly due to educational failure.

Early Subcultural theorists: working class teenagers most likely to join gangs - due to status frustration. Links to educational failure again.

Environmental theorists: police labelling, deviancy amplification.

Social Action theorists: young boys more likely to be negatively labelled - Chambliss, 'Saints & Roughnecks'

Trad Marxists: working class no more criminal than others, 'real' criminals are older businessmen.

New Criminologists: ethnicity more important for labelling

New Left Realists: all classes and ages commit crimes BUT violent street crime most likely to be committed by young working class black men.

WHITE COLLAR CRIME - older and 'higher' class usually.

Victimology - study of victims
BCS = British Crime Survey, collected annually, self-report study. Incl. 40 000 adults 16+

All minority ethnic groups more likely to be victims of most crime than whites.
Black and Indian ethnic groups more likely to be robbed.
Black groups more likely to be assaulted/murdered than whites.

Reasons:
- environment, area lived in
- higher rates unemployment (link to education)
- no. of young people compared to whites.
- effect of gang activity

BCS - only considers adults over 16
Information on under-16 limited
2003 - separate Crime & Justice survey incl interviews with 10-15 yr olds.
Self-report study looking at nature of crimes committed: attitudes to and contact with criminal justice system: experiences of victimisation.

2004 - MORI - 13% of 11-16 yr olds experienced an assault.
2004 - Howard League for Penal Reform, surveyed 500 primary age students = 95% experienced crime.

ISSUES:
Does a friend pushing you in anger constitute an assault?
Taking someone's kit by mistake - is this theft?
Query validity and therefore usefulness of such report studies.