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Published on Nov 19, 2015
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ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE AND THE EFFECTS ON HUMAN HEALTH THE POPULATION AND HEALTHCARE INSTITUTIONS
BY: JACQUELINE FRASER & MARIA JASMINE NIBALI
Photo by NIAID
Antibiotic resistance is a worldwide problem, new forms of antibiotic resistance can cross borders and spread between continents with ease and speed. World health leaders have described antibiotic- resistant microorganisms as nightmare bacteria that pose a threat to people in every country. Doctors continue to prescribe. antibiotics for virtually every malady even viral infections, for which they are not effective at all. The public demands antibiotics for every cough and sniffle and fill their homes with antibacterial products and consume animals raised on antibiotics. Although there is an awareness of the dangers of overuse. the belief that the pharmaceutical industry can always come out with new antibiotics to replace the old has led to a situation in which we can no longer count on antibiotics to be effective against dangerous disease-causing microbes.
Photo by Staphylococcus by Gabriela Sanabria
ETIOLOGY OF ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE
An important contributing factor to the spread of antibiotic resistance is the ability
of the resistance gene to move into other bacteria by a variety of genetic means. One transfer mechanism is by plasmids, extra chromosomal elements that can move genes between bacteria of vastly different backgrounds including between gram positive and gram negative.
There are bacteriophages that can deliver chromosomal or plasmid delivered resistance genes,
Photo by NIAID
ETIOLOGY CONTD
finally naked DNA can be picked up from dead bacteria and be incorporated into new strains. The last mechanism, called transformation, is documented in the haemophilus and pneumococci.Not all bacteria have all three mechanisms but each help amplify determinants of resistance.
Photo by isis325
HISTORY OF ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE
WHO IS AT RISK?
Colonization with antibiotic-resistant bacteria is a common problem in hospitalized patients worldwide; it is also prevalent in patients in long-term care facilities. A number of theories have been proposed to explain this rate of colonization, including repeated exposure to antibiotics, and horizontal transmission among patients and across facilies.
Photo by hawaii
WHO IS AT RISK CONT
Although antibiotic resistance can affect anyone in the population, some persons may be more at risk for succumbing to antibiotic resistant infections, such as:
Persons who had had invasive surgery such as hip replacement,
Neonates
Cancer and chemotherapy patients,
The elderly
Dialysis patients and persons with Rheumatoid Arthritis.
Photo by quecojones
INFECTION CONTROL AND ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE IN HOSPITALS.
Hospital infection control is key to controlling the spread of resistant bacteria in healthcare settings. Closer attention is needed to be paid to:
Hand hygiene among healthcare workers,
Use of gloves
Caution in antibiotic prescribing
Use of Antibiotic cycling
Photo by chungyc
Effects of Antibiotic Resistance on Community & Economy
In a recently conducted survey, approximately half of patients in more than 1,000 intensive care units in 75 countries suffered from an infection, and infected patients had twice the risk of dying in the hospital as uninfected patients.
Effects of Antibiotic Resistance on Community & Economy
Antibiotic resistance also hampers the ability to respond to national security threats such as bioterrorism and pandemics. Ultimately, the loss of effective antibiotics will result in a great increase in morbidity and mortality from infections. Antimicrobial resistance is of such tremendous global concern that the WHO has proclaimed it the central focus of World Health Day 2011.
Photo by TLVshac
Affects of Antibiotic Resistance on Community and Economy
Based on studies of the costs of infections caused by antibiotic-resistant pathogens versus antibiotic-susceptible pathogens, the annual cost to the US health care system of antibiotic-resistant infections is $21 billion to $34 billion and more than 8 million dollars for the additional hospital days..
Photo by terrypresley
Prevention of Antibiotic Resistance
Since antibiotic resistance can have grave consequences and there are currently few options for treating it, prevention is the key. There are a number of ways to prevent antibiotic resistance:
Keep antibiotics out of their system as much as possible.
Scrupulous standards of cleanliness in doctors’ offices and hospitals—far beyond the usual protocol of quick hand washing.
Educating physicians, veterinarians and members of community on cautious antibiotic usage.
Photo by Nottingham Vet School
Treatment of Antibiotic Resistant Organisms
Antibiotic-resistant infections are very difficult to treat successfully, so researchers have had to develop new technologies and innovative approaches to treating them.
nanoantibiotics. Nanosized drug carriers are a good way to get around the usual antibiotic resistance because they may in themselves have antimicrobial properties if they are metallic, and they also can reduce acute toxicity, overcome resistance, and lower costs over regular antibiotics.
Photo by NIAID
Treatment of Antibiotic Resistant Organisms
Another innovative approach to defeating antibiotic resistance is the use of permablasts, the short-lived B cells found in the blood.The plasmablasts can be collected and then used to produce therapeutic antibodies. It has been concluded that plasmablasts can serve as a means of developing therapeutic antibodies for treating antibiotic-resistant and otherwise untreatable infections.
Photo by NIAID
Treatment of Antibiotic Resistant Organisms
Treatments for Clostridium difficile are also becoming less and less effective, even as the disease increases in terms of its occurrence, severity, and mortality.
A new strategy—fecal microbiota transplantation (FMT)—is achieving a 90% cure rate among infected patients by restoring the normal balance of colon flora and reducing the incidence of colonization resistance that allows the pathogenic C. difficile strains to flourish.
FMT reintroduces normal colon flora through the use of donor feces, thus correcting the imbalance in the colon’s flora and interrupting the cycle to reestablish normal bowel function
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MRSA PREVALENCE ON HOSPITALIZED INDIVIDUALS IN CAYMAN
RESISTANT PSEUDOMONAS Jan 2009-Dec 2013
STAPH AUREUS (JAN 2009-DEC2013)
PROTEUS MIRABILIS (JAN 2009-DEC 2013)
KLEBSIELLA PNEUMONIAE (JAN 2009- DEC 2013)
HAEMOPHILUS INFLUENZAE (JAN 2009-DEC2013)
CONCLUSION
The problem of antibiotic resistance is a largely human-caused one due to overuse of pharmaceutical antibiotics. As more and more antibiotics become ineffective against virulent strains of bacteria because the bacteria are adapting to them, the responsibility falls back upon healthcare professionals, patients, and everyday citizens to curb their use of antibiotics so that a catastrophic pandemic may be prevented when an antibiotic-resistant bacterium is unleashed upon a public that has no drugs for addressing it. The availability of highly powerful and effective natural antibacterial remedies such as olive leaf extract and oregano oil can be added to other innovative approaches that bypass or defeat antibiotic re…
Photo by Albaraa Mehdar
